In Renaissance Art a Representation of Mary Either Alone or With Her Child Jesus Is Called What

Artistic representation of Mary, either alone or with her child Jesus

Our Mother of Perpetual Help, Icon of the Virgin Mary, 16th century. St. Catherine'due south Monastery in the Sinai.

The Salus Populi Romani icon, overpainted in the 13th century, simply going back to an underlying original dated to the 5th or sixth century.

A Madonna (Italian: [maˈdɔn.na]) is a representation of Mary, either alone or with her child Jesus. These images are key icons for both the Cosmic and Orthodox churches.^[1] The word is from Italian ma donna 'my lady', albeit archaic. The Madonna and Child blazon is very prevalent in Christian iconography, divided into many traditional subtypes especially in Eastern Orthodox iconography, oftentimes known after the location of a notable icon of the blazon, such as the Theotokos of Vladimir, Agiosoritissa, Blachernitissa, etc., or descriptive of the depicted posture, every bit in Hodegetria, Eleusa, etc.

The term Madonna in the sense of "picture or statue of the Virgin Mary" enters English usage in the 17th century, primarily in reference to works of the Italian Renaissance. In an Eastern Orthodox context, such images are typically known as Theotokos. "Madonna" may be generally used of representations of Mary, with or without the infant Jesus, is the focus and central figure of the image, possibly flanked or surrounded past angels or saints. Other types of Marian imagery take a narrative context, depicting scenes from the Life of the Virgin, e.g. the Annunciation to Mary, are not typically called "Madonna".

The earliest depictions of Mary appointment to Early on Christian art of the (2nd to tertiary centuries, found in the Catacombs of Rome.^[2] These are in a narrative context. The classical "Madonna" or "Theotokos" imagery develops from the fifth century, as Marian devotion rose to great importance after the Quango of Ephesus formally affirmed her status every bit "Mother of God or Theotokos ("God-bearer") in 431.^[3] The Theotokos iconography every bit it developed in the 6th to 8th century rose to great importance in the high medieval period (12th to 14th centuries) both in the Eastern Orthodox and in the Latin spheres.

According to a tradition first recorded in the 8th century, and still strong in the Eastern Church building, the iconography of images of Mary goes back to a portrait drawn from life by Luke the Evangelist, with a number of icons (such equally the Panagia Portaitissa) claimed to either represent this original icon or to be a direct copy of it. In the Western tradition, depictions of the Madonna were profoundly diversified by Renaissance masters such as Duccio, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Giovanni Bellini, Caravaggio, and Rubens (and further by certain modernists such equally Salvador Dalí and Henry Moore), while Eastern Orthodox iconography adheres more closely to the inherited traditional types.

Terminology [edit]

Liturgy depicting Mary as powerful intercessor (such as the Akathist) was brought from Greek into Latin tradition in the 8th century. The Greek championship of Δεσποινα (Despoina) was adopted as Latin Domina "Lady". The medieval Italian Ma Donna pronounced [maˈdɔnna] ("My Lady") reflects Mea Domina, while Nostra Domina (δεσποινίς ἡμῶν) was adopted in French, as Nostre Dame "Our Lady".^[4]

These names signal both the increased importance of the cult of the virgin and the prominence of art in service to Marian devotion during the belatedly medieval period. During the 13th century, especially,^{[ citation needed ]} with the increasing influence of chivalry and aristocratic civilisation on poetry, song and the visual arts, the Madonna is represented as the queen of Heaven, oftentimes enthroned. Madonna was meant more to remind people of the theological concept which is placing such a high value on purity or virginity. This is also represented by the colour of her clothing. The color blue symbolized purity, virginity, and royalty.^{[ citation needed ]}

While the Italian term Madonna paralleled English Our Lady in late medieval Marian devotion, it was imported every bit an fine art historical term into English language usage in the 1640s, designating specifically the Marian art of the Italian Renaissance. In this sense, "a Madonna", or "a Madonna with Kid" is used of specific works of art, historically mostly of Italian works. A "Madonna" may alternatively exist called "Virgin" or "Our Lady", but "Madonna" is non typically applied to eastern works; e.1000. the Theotokos of Vladimir may in English exist called "Our Lady of Vladimir", while it is less usual, simply not unheard of, to refer to it as the "Madonna of Vladimir".^[5]

Modes of representation [edit]

There are several distinct types of representation of the Madonna.

One type of Madonna shows Mary alone (without the child Jesus), and continuing, generally glorified and with a gesture of prayer, benediction or prophesy. This blazon of image occurs in a number of ancient apsidal mosaics.
Full-length continuing images of the Madonna more than frequently include the infant Jesus, who turns towards the viewer or raises his mitt in benediction. The most famous Byzantine image, the Hodegetria was originally of this type, though most copies are at half-length. This type of image occurs oftentimes in sculpture and may exist establish in delicate ivory carvings, in limestone on the central door posts of many cathedrals, and in polychrome wooden or plaster casts in almost every Cosmic Church. There are a number of famous paintings that draw the Madonna in this manner, notably the Sistine Madonna by Raphael.
The "Madonna enthroned" is a type of image that dates from the Byzantine period and was used widely in Medieval and Renaissance times. These representations of the Madonna and Kid often take the form of large altarpieces. They also occur as frescoes and apsidal mosaics. In Medieval examples the Madonna is often accompanied by angels who support the throne, or by rows of saints. In Renaissance painting, particularly High Renaissance painting, the saints may be grouped informally in a type of composition known as a Sacra conversazione.
The Madonna of humility refers to portrayals in which the Madonna is sitting on the ground, or sitting upon a low cushion. She may be belongings the Child Jesus in her lap.^[vi] This style was a product of Franciscan piety,^[7] ^[8] and perhaps due to Simone Martini. It spread quickly through Italy and by 1375 examples began to appear in Espana, France and Germany. It was the well-nigh popular among the styles of the early Trecento artistic period.^[9]
One-half-length Madonnas are the grade nigh frequently taken by painted icons of the Eastern Orthodox Church building, where the subject thing is highly formulated and then that each painting expresses one particular attribute of the "Mother of God". One-half-length paintings of the Madonna and Child are besides common in Italian Renaissance painting, particularly in Venice.
The seated "Madonna and Child" is a manner of image that became particularly popular during the 15th century in Florence and was imitated elsewhere. These representations are usually of a small size suitable for a modest altar or domestic utilise. They unremarkably show Mary holding the infant Jesus in an informal and maternal manner. These paintings often include symbolic reference to the Passion of Christ.
The "Adoring Madonna" is a blazon popular during the Renaissance. These images, usually small and intended for personal devotion, show Mary kneeling in adoration of the Christ Child. Many such images were produced in glazed terracotta as well as paint.
The nursing Madonna refers to portrayals of the Madonna breastfeeding the baby Jesus.
The iconography of the Woman of the Apocalypse is practical to marian portraiture in a variety of ways over fourth dimension, depending on the interpretation of the relevant Biblical passage.^[10]

History [edit]

Painting of the Madonna and Kid by an anonymous Italian, first half of 19th century

The earliest representation of the Madonna and Child may be the wall painting in the Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome, in which the seated Madonna suckles the Child, who turns his caput to gaze at the spectator.^[11]

The earliest consequent representations of Mother and Kid were developed in the Eastern Empire, where despite an iconoclastic strain in culture that rejected physical representations as "idols", respect for venerated images was expressed in the repetition of a narrow range of highly conventionalized types, the repeated images familiar every bit icons (Greek "image"). On a visit to Constantinople in 536, Pope Agapetus was accused of being opposed to the veneration of the theotokos and to the portrayal of her image in churches.^[12] Eastern examples bear witness the Madonna enthroned, even wearing the closed Byzantine pearl-encrusted crown with pendants, with the Christ Kid on her lap.^[13]

In the Westward, hieratic Byzantine models were closely followed in the Early Eye Ages, but with the increased importance of the cult of the Virgin in the 12th and 13th centuries a wide multifariousness of types developed to satisfy a flood of more than intensely personal forms of piety. In the usual Gothic and Renaissance formulas the Virgin Mary sits with the Infant Jesus on her lap, or enfolded in her arms. In before representations the Virgin is enthroned, and the Child may be fully aware, raising his paw to offering blessing. In a 15th-century Italian variation, a baby John the Baptist looks on. The socalled Madonna della seggiola shows both of them: the Virgin embraces the infant Jesus, most John the Baptist.

Late Gothic sculptures of the Virgin and Child may show a standing virgin with the child in her arms. Iconography varies between public images and private images supplied on a smaller scale and meant for personal devotion in the chamber: the Virgin suckling the Kid (such every bit the Madonna Litta) is an paradigm largely confined to individual devotional icons.

Early images [edit]

There was a nifty expansion of the cult of Mary later the Council of Ephesus in 431, when her status as Theotokos ("God-bearer") was confirmed; this had been a discipline of some controversy until then, though mainly for reasons to do with arguments over the nature of Christ. In mosaics in Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, dating from 432–440, simply later the council, she is non yet shown with a halo, and she is also non shown in Nativity scenes at this date, though she is included in the Adoration of the Magi.

By the next century the iconic depiction of the Virgin enthroned carrying the infant Christ was established, as in the example from the just group of icons surviving from this period, at Saint Catherine's Monastery in Egypt. This type of depiction, with subtly changing differences of emphasis, has remained the mainstay of depictions of Mary to the present day. The image at Mount Sinai succeeds in combining two aspects of Mary described in the Magnificat, her humility and her exaltation above other humans, and has the Hand of God above, upwards to which the archangels look. An early on icon of the Virgin equally queen is in the church of Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome, datable to 705–707 by the kneeling effigy of Pope John 7, a notable promoter of the cult of the Virgin, to whom the infant Christ reaches his hand. This type was long bars to Rome. The roughly one-half-dozen varied icons of the Virgin and Child in Rome from the 6th–8th century course the majority of the representations surviving from this period; "isolated images of the Madonna and Child ... are then common ... to the nowadays day in Cosmic and Orthodox tradition, that information technology is hard to recover a sense of the novelty of such images in the early Middle Ages, at least in western Europe".^[14]

At this catamenia the iconography of the Nascency was taking the form, centred on Mary, that it has retained up to the present day in Eastern Orthodoxy, and on which Western depictions remained based until the Loftier Middle Ages. Other narrative scenes for Byzantine cycles on the Life of the Virgin were beingness evolved, relying on apocyphal sources to fill in her life before the Declaration to Mary. By this fourth dimension the political and economic collapse of the Western Roman Empire meant that the Western, Latin, church was unable to compete in the development of such sophisticated iconography, and relied heavily on Byzantine developments.

The primeval surviving image in a Western illuminated manuscript of the Madonna and Child comes from the Volume of Kells of about 800 ^[15] (there is a similar carved paradigm on the lid of St Cuthbert'due south coffin of 698) and, though magnificently decorated in the style of Insular fine art, the drawing of the figures can but exist described as rather crude compared to Byzantine work of the period. This was in fact an unusual inclusion in a Gospel book, and images of the Virgin were slow to appear in large numbers in manuscript art until the book of hours was devised in the 13th century.

The Madonna of humility by Domenico di Bartolo, 1433, is considered one of the well-nigh innovative devotional images from the early Renaissance.^[sixteen]

Byzantine influence on the W [edit]

Very few early images of the Virgin Mary survive, though the delineation of the Madonna has roots in aboriginal pictorial and sculptural traditions that informed the primeval Christian communities throughout Europe, Northern Africa and the Middle E. Of import to Italian tradition are Byzantine icons, especially those created in Constantinople (Istanbul), the capital letter of the longest, enduring medieval civilization whose icons participated in civic life and were celebrated for their miraculous properties. Byzantium (324–1453) saw itself every bit the true Rome, if Greek-speaking, Christian empire with colonies of Italians living among its citizens, participating in Crusades at the borders of its land, and ultimately, plundering its churches, palaces and monasteries of many of its treasures. After in the Heart Ages, the Cretan school was the main source of icons for the Westward, and the artists there could adapt their style to Western iconography when required.

While theft is one way that Byzantine images made their way West to Italy, the relationship betwixt Byzantine icons and Italian images of the Madonna is far more rich and complicated. Byzantine art played a long, critical role in Western Europe, especially when Byzantine territories included parts of Eastern Europe, Hellenic republic and much of Italian republic itself. Byzantine manuscripts, ivories, aureate, silver and luxurious textiles were distributed throughout the West. In Byzantium, Mary'southward usual championship was the Theotokos or Mother of God, rather than the Virgin Mary and it was believed that conservancy was delivered to the true-blue at the moment of God's incarnation. That theological concept takes pictorial class in the prototype of Mary holding her infant son.

However, what is almost relevant to the Byzantine heritage of the Madonna is twofold. Offset, the earliest surviving independent images of the Virgin Mary are found in Rome, the center of Christianity in the medieval West. One is a valued possession of Santa Maria in Trastevere, one of the many Roman churches dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Some other, a splintered, repainted ghost of its former cocky, is venerated at the Pantheon, that great architectural wonder of the Ancient Roman Empire, that was rededicated to Mary as an expression of the Church'due south triumph. Both evoke Byzantine tradition in terms of their medium, that is, the technique and materials of the paintings, in that they were originally painted in tempera (egg yolk and ground pigments) on wooden panels. In this respect, they share the Aboriginal Roman heritage of Byzantine icons. Second, they share iconography, or subject area matter. Each image stresses the maternal part that Mary plays, representing her in human relationship to her babe son. It is difficult to gauge the dates of the cluster of these earlier images, however, they seem to exist primarily works of the seventh and 8th centuries.

Later medieval menses [edit]

It was non until the revival of monumental panel painting in Italian republic during the 12th and 13th centuries, that the prototype of the Madonna gains prominence outside of Rome, especially throughout Tuscany. While members of the mendicant orders of the Franciscan and Dominican Orders are some of the outset to committee panels representing this subject matter, such works apace became popular in monasteries, parish churches, and homes. Some images of the Madonna were paid for by lay organizations called confraternities, who met to sing praises of the Virgin in chapels found within the newly reconstructed, spacious churches that were sometimes dedicated to her. Paying for such a work might also exist seen as a form of devotion. Its expense registers in the use of thin sheets of real gold leafage in all parts of the console that are not covered with paint, a visual analogue not only to the plush sheaths that medieval goldsmiths used to decorate altars, just likewise a ways of surrounding the image of the Madonna with illumination from oil lamps and candles. Even more precious is the vivid blue pall colored with lapis lazuli, a stone imported from Afghanistan.

This is the instance of one of the most famous, innovative and awe-inspiring works that Duccio executed for the Laudesi at Santa Maria Novella in Florence. Often the scale of the work indicates a great deal about its original part. Often referred to as the Rucellia Madonna (c. 1285), the panel painting towers over the spectator, offering a visual focus for members of the Laudesi confraternity to get together earlier it as they sang praises to the image. Duccio fabricated an even grander image of the Madonna enthroned for the loftier altar of the cathedral of Siena, his home town. Known as the Maesta (1308–1311), the prototype represents the pair as the heart of a densely populated courtroom in the fundamental part of a complexly carpentered work that lifts the court upon a predella (pedestal of altarpiece) of narrative scenes and standing figures of prophets and saints. In plough, a modestly scaled image of the Madonna as a half-length figure holding her son in a memorably intimate depiction, is to be establish in the National Gallery of London. This is clearly made for the private devotion of a Christian wealthy enough to hire one of the nigh important Italian artists of his day.

The privileged possessor need non become to Church building to say his prayers or plead for salvation; all he or she had to do was open the shutters of the tabernacle in an act of individual revelation. Duccio and his contemporaries inherited early pictorial conventions that were maintained, in office, to tie their own works to the authority of tradition.

Despite all of the innovations of painters of the Madonna during the 13th and 14th centuries, Mary can ordinarily exist recognized by virtue of her attire. Customarily when she is represented as a youthful mother of her newborn child, she wears a deeply saturated blue pall over a red garment. This mantle typically covers her head, where sometimes, one might see a linen, or subsequently, transparent silk veil. She holds the Christ Child, or Baby Jesus, who shares her halo every bit well every bit her regal bearing. Often her gaze is directed out at the viewer, serving as an intercessor, or conduit for prayers that flow from the Christian, to her, and just then, to her son. However, late medieval Italian artists as well followed the trends of Byzantine icon painting, developing their own methods of depicting the Madonna. Sometimes, the Madonna's complex bond with her tiny child takes the class of a close, intimate moment of tenderness steeped in sorrow where she merely has eyes for him.

While the focus of this entry currently stresses the depiction of the Madonna in panel painting, her image too appears in mural decoration, whether mosaics or fresco painting on the exteriors and interior of sacred buildings. She is establish high to a higher place the alcove, or eastward finish of the church where the liturgy is celebrated in the Westward. She is also found in sculpted form, whether small ivories for private devotion, or large sculptural reliefs and free-standing sculpture. As a participant in sacred drama, her image inspires ane of the nearly important fresco cycles in all of Italian painting: Giotto's narrative cycle in the Arena Chapel, next to the Scrovegni family'south palace in Padua. This programme dates to the get-go decade of the 14th century.

Italian artists of the 15th century onward are indebted to traditions established in the 13th and 14th centuries in their representation of the Madonna.

Renaissance [edit]

While the 15th and 16th centuries were a time when Italian painters expanded their repertoire to include historical events, contained portraits and mythological subject matter, Christianity retained a stiff hold on their careers. Most works of art from this era are sacred. While the range of religious subject area matter included subjects from the Old Testament and images of saints whose cults date after the codification of the Bible, the Madonna remained a dominant subject area in the iconography of the Renaissance.

Some of the most eminent 16th-century Italian painters to turn to this field of study were Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael,^{[notation 1]} Giorgione, Giovanni Bellini and Titian. They developed on the foundations of 15th-century Marian images past Fra Angelico, Fra Filippo Lippi, Mantegna and Piero della Francesca in particular, among countless others. The subject was equally pop in Early Netherlandish painting and that of the rest of Northern Europe.

The discipline retaining the greatest power on all of these men remained the maternal bail, even though other subjects, especially the Declaration, and later the Immaculate Conception, led to a greater number of paintings that represented Mary solitary, without her son. As a commemorative image, the Pietà became an of import bailiwick, newly freed from its quondam role in narrative cycles, in part, an outgrowth of popular devotional statues in Northern Europe. Traditionally, Mary is depicted expressing compassion, grief and love, usually in highly charged, emotional works of fine art even though the near famous, early work by Michelangelo stifles signs of mourning. The tenderness an ordinary mother might feel towards her beloved kid is captured, evoking the moment when she first held her infant son Christ. The spectator, after all, is meant to sympathize, to share in the despair of the mother who holds the body of her crucified son.

Modern images [edit]

In some European countries, such equally Germany, Italy and Poland sculptures of the Madonna are found on the outside of urban center houses and buildings, or along the roads in small enclosures.

In Germany, such a statue placed on the exterior of a building is chosen a Hausmadonna. Some date back to the Middle Ages, while some are nonetheless being made today. Usually institute on the level of the second floor or higher, and oft on the corner of a business firm, such sculptures were found in cracking numbers in many cities; Mainz, for instance, was supposed to accept had more than than 200 of them earlier World War II.^[nineteen] The variety in such statues is as neat every bit in other Madonna images; one finds Madonnas holding grapes (in reference to the Song of Songs 1:14, translated as "My lover is to me a cluster of henna blossoms" in the NIV), "immaculate" Madonnas in pure, perfect white without kid or accessories, and Madonnas with roses symbolizing her life determined by the mysteries of faith.^[20]

In Italy, the roadside Madonna is a common sight both on the side of buildings and forth roads in small enclosures. These are expected to bring spiritual relief to people who pass them.^[21] Some Madonnas statues are placed around Italian towns and villages equally a matter of protection, or as a celebration of a reported miracle.^[22]

In the 1920s, the Daughters of the American Revolution placed statues called the Madonna of the Trail from coast to coast, marking the path of the old National Road and the Santa Iron Trail.^[23]

Throughout his life, the painter Ray Martìn Abeyta created works inspired by the Cusco School style of Madonna painting, creating a hybrid of traditional and contemporary Latino discipline matter representing the colonialist encounters betwixt Europeans and Mesoamericans.^[24] ^[25]

In 2015 iconographer Mark Dukes created the icon Our Lady of Ferguson, depicting the Madonna and child, in relation to the Shooting of Michael Brownish in Ferguson, Missouri.^[26]

Islamic view [edit]

The start important encounter betwixt Islam and the image of the Madonna is said to have happened during the Prophet Muhammad'southward conquest of Mecca. At the culmination of his mission, in 629 CE, Muhammad conquered Mecca with a Muslim army, with his first action being the "cleansing" or "purifying" of the Kaaba, wherein he removed all the pre-Islamic pagan images and idols from inside the temple. According to reports collected by Ibn Ishaq and al-Azraqi, Muhammad did, yet, protectively put his paw over a painting of Mary and Jesus, and a fresco of Abraham in gild to go on them from being effaced.^[27] ^[28] In the words of the historian Barnaby Rogerson, "Muhammad raised his hand to protect an icon of the Virgin and Child and a painting of Abraham, but otherwise his companions cleared the interior of its ataxia of votive treasures, cult implements, statuettes and hanging charms."^[29]

The Islamic scholar Martin Lings narrated the event thus in his biography of the Prophet: "Christians sometimes came to do honour to the Sanctuary of Abraham, and they were made welcome like all the residue. Moreover one Christian had been allowed and even encouraged to pigment an icon of the Virgin Mary and the kid Christ on an inside wall of the Ka'bah, where it sharply contrasted with all the other paintings. But Quraysh were more or less insensitive to this contrast: for them it was just a question of increasing the multitude of idols by another two; and it was partly their tolerance that made them so bulletproof.... Apart from the icon of the Virgin Mary and the child Jesus, and a painting of an one-time homo, said to be Abraham, the walls within had been covered with pictures of infidel deities. Placing his mitt protectively over the icon, the Prophet told Uthman to see that all the other paintings, except that of Abraham, were effaced."^[30]

Notable types and private works [edit]

There are a large number of articles on private works of various sorts in Category:Virgin Mary in fine art and its sub-category. Run into likewise the incomplete List of depictions of the Virgin and Child. The term "Madonna" is often practical to representations of Mary that were not created past Italians. A small selection of examples include:

Golden Madonna of Essen, the primeval large-calibration sculptural case in Western Europe and a precedent for the polychrome wooden processional sculptures of Romanesque France, a blazon known every bit Throne of Wisdom.
Madonna of humility depicting a Madonna sitting on the footing, or depression cushions
Madonna and Child, a painting by Duccio di Buoninsegna, from around the twelvemonth 1300.
The Blackness Madonna of Częstochowa (Czarna Madonna or Matka Boska Częstochowska in Polish) icon, which was, co-ordinate to legend, painted by St. Luke the Evangelist on a cypress table top from the house of the Holy Family.
Madonna and Child with Flowers, mayhap i of 2 works begun by Leonardo da Vinci.
Madonna Eleusa (of tenderness) has been depicted both in the Eastern and Western churches.
Madonna of the Steps, a relief by Michelangelo.
Madonna della seggiola, by Raphael
Madonna with the Long Neck, past Parmigianino.
The Madonna of Port Lligat, the proper noun of two paintings past Salvador Dalí created in 1949 and 1950.

Paintings [edit]

Madonna in Art
Madonna in Mandorla, Wolfgang Sauber, 12th century
Madonna and Angels, Duccio, 1282
Our Female parent of Perpetual Help, probably an early Cretan piece of work, 13th or 14th century. A very pop Catholic paradigm, which was certainly in Rome by 1499.
Mary and the child depicted every bit a hodegetria. Tesselated icon in monumental style, early 13th century. Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai, Egypt
Madonna in the rose-garden, by Stefan Lochner 1448

Statues [edit]

Egyptian ivory carving, one of the earliest examples of what in later Byzantine times was called Eleousa, or "Virgin of Tenderness". 7th century.
A roadside Madonna in Ocieka, Poland.
A roadside Madonna apse in Friuli, Italy.

Manuscripts and covers [edit]

See too [edit]

Christian Art
Art in Roman Catholicism
Mary (mother of Jesus)
Roman Catholic Marian fine art
Pietà
Nursing Madonna
Life-giving Leap
Eleusa icon
Theotokos
Icon of the Hodegetria
Our Lady of Guadalupe
La Conquistadora

Notes [edit]

^ Co-ordinate to W. H. Wackenroder, some writings by Bramante reveal that Raphael told him that he discovered how to paint his Madonnas in a visionary dream he had later praying to the Virgin.^[18]

References [edit]

^ Doniger, Wendy, Merriam-Webster'southward encyclopedia of world religions, 1999, ISBN 0-87779-044-2 p. 696.
^ Mary in Western Fine art by Timothy Verdon, Filippo Rossi 2005 ISBN 0-9712981-9-Ten p. 11
^ Shush, Raymond, Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated Persons 2008 ISBN 1-57918-355-7^{[ folio needed ]}
^ Johannes Schneider, Virgo Ecclesia Facta, 2004, p. 74. Michael O'Carroll, Theotokos: A Theological Encyclopedia of the Blessed Virgin Mary, 2000, p. 127.
^ "Madonna of Vladimir" e.one thousand. in Hans Belting, Edmund Jephcott; Edmund Jephcott (trans.) Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image Earlier the Era of Fine art, University of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 289.
^ Renaissance art: a topical dictionary by Irene Earls 1987 ISBN 0-313-24658-0 p. 174
^ A history of ideas and images in Italian art by James Hall 1983 ISBN 0-06-433317-5 p. 223
^ Iconography of Christian Fine art by Gertrud Schiller, 1971 ASIN B0023VMZMA p. 112
^ Painting in Florence and Siena after the Blackness Expiry by Millard Meiss 1979 ISBN 0-691-00312-2 pp. 132–133
^ Roten, Johann. "Crescent Moon: Meaning : Academy of Dayton, Ohio". udayton.edu.
^ Victor Lasareff, "Studies in the Iconography of the Virgin" The Art Bulletin 20.1 (March 1938, pp. 26–65 [pp. 27f]).
^ one thousand. Mundell, "Monophysite church building decoration" Iconoclasm (Birmingham) 1977, p. 72.
^ Equally in the fresco fragments of the lower Basilica di San Clemente, Rome: see John L. Osborne, "Early Medieval Painting in San Clemente, Rome: The Madonna and Child in the Niche" Gesta 20.two (1981), pp. 299–310.
^ Nees, Lawrence. Early medieval art, 143–145, quote 144, Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-284243-9, ISBN 978-0-nineteen-284243-5
^ Werner, Martin (1972). "The Madonna and Child Miniature in the Book of Kells: Function I". The Fine art Bulletin. 54 (1): i–23. doi:10.2307/3048928. JSTOR 3048928.
^ Art and music in the early modern period by Franca Trinchieri Camiz, Katherine A. McIver ISBN 0-7546-0689-9 p. xv [1]
^ National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.
^ Salmi, Mario; Becherucci, Luisa; Marabottini, Alessandro; Tempesti, Anna Forlani; Marchini, Giuseppe; Becatti, Giovanni; Castagnoli, Ferdinando; Golzio, Vincenzo (1969). The Consummate Piece of work of Raphael. New York: Reynal and Co., William Morrow and Company. p. 622.
^ Wöhrlin, Annette; Luzie Bratner; Marlene Höbel; Hiltraud Laubach; Anne-Madeleine Plum (2008). Mainzer Hausmadonnen. Ingelheim: Leinpfad. ISBN978-3-937782-70-half dozen.
^ Anne-Madeleine Plum, "Kreuzzepter-Madonna--Zypertraube ind fruchtbringende Rede" and "Maria, Geheimnisvolle Rose", in Wöhrlin, Mainzer Hausmadonnen, pp. 49–54, 55–57.
^ Thomas Singer, 2004 The cultural complex ISBN 1-58391-913-9 p. 68
^ Mark Pearson, 2006 Italian republic from a Haversack ISBN 0-9743552-4-0 p. 219
^ Madonna of the Trail
^ Williams, Stephen P. (August 5, 2007). "The Art Is Striking, and And so Are the Cars". The New York Times . Retrieved nine Apr 2019.
^ Roberts, Kathaleen (June 29, 2014). "NM History Museum unveils rare colonial paintings of Mary". Albuquerque Journal . Retrieved nine April 2019.
^ http://nebraskaepiscopalian.org/?true cat=32&paged=2
^ Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah". Oxford University Press. p. 552. ISBN978-0196360331 . Retrieved 2011-12-08 . Quraysh had put pictures in the Ka'ba including two of Jesus son of Mary and Mary (on both of whom be peace!). ... The apostle ordered that the pictures should be erased except those of Jesus and Mary.
^ Ellenbogen, Josh; Tugendhaft, Aaron (2011). Idol Anxiety. Stanford University Press. p. 47. ISBN978-0804781817. When Muhammad ordered his men to cleanse the Kaaba of the statues and pictures displayed there, he spared the paintings of the Virgin and Child and of Abraham.
^ Rogerson, Barnaby (2003). The Prophet Muhammad: A Biography. Paulist Press. p. 190. ISBN978-1587680298.
^ Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Source (Rochester: Inner Traditions, 1987), pp. 17, 300.

External links [edit]

Metropolitan Museum: The Virgin Mary in the Middle Ages

The Madonna in Art at Project Gutenberg by Estelle Thousand. Hurll (First printed 1897)

bunnyrecoughtell38.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madonna_(art)